[ty] Improve diagnostics for invalid exceptions (#21475)

## Summary

Not a high-priority task... but it _is_ a weekend :P

This PR improves our diagnostics for invalid exceptions. Specifically:
- We now give a special-cased ``help: Did you mean
`NotImplementedError`` subdiagnostic for `except NotImplemented`, `raise
NotImplemented` and `raise <EXCEPTION> from NotImplemented`
- If the user catches a tuple of exceptions (`except (foo, bar, baz):`)
and multiple elements in the tuple are invalid, we now collect these
into a single diagnostic rather than emitting a separate diagnostic for
each tuple element
- The explanation of why the `except`/`raise` was invalid ("must be a
`BaseException` instance or `BaseException` subclass", etc.) is
relegated to a subdiagnostic. This makes the top-level diagnostic
summary much more concise.

## Test Plan

Lots of snapshots. And here's some screenshots:

<details>
<summary>Screenshots</summary>

<img width="1770" height="1520" alt="image"
src="https://github.com/user-attachments/assets/7f27fd61-c74d-4ddf-ad97-ea4fd24d06fd"
/>

<img width="1916" height="1392" alt="image"
src="https://github.com/user-attachments/assets/83e5027c-8798-48a6-a0ec-1babfc134000"
/>

<img width="1696" height="588" alt="image"
src="https://github.com/user-attachments/assets/1bc16048-6eb4-4dfa-9ace-dd271074530f"
/>

</details>

crates/ty_python_semantic/resources/mdtest/exception/basic.md

@@ -116,17 +116,18 @@ def silence2[T: (
 
 ## Invalid exception handlers
 
+<!-- snapshot-diagnostics -->
+
 ```py
 try:
     pass
-# error: [invalid-exception-caught] "Cannot catch object of type `Literal[3]` in an exception handler (must be a `BaseException` subclass or a tuple of `BaseException` subclasses)"
+# error: [invalid-exception-caught]
 except 3 as e:
     reveal_type(e)  # revealed: Unknown
 
 try:
     pass
-# error: [invalid-exception-caught] "Cannot catch object of type `Literal["foo"]` in an exception handler (must be a `BaseException` subclass or a tuple of `BaseException` subclasses)"
-# error: [invalid-exception-caught] "Cannot catch object of type `Literal[b"bar"]` in an exception handler (must be a `BaseException` subclass or a tuple of `BaseException` subclasses)"
+# error: [invalid-exception-caught]
 except (ValueError, OSError, "foo", b"bar") as e:
     reveal_type(e)  # revealed: ValueError | OSError | Unknown
 
@@ -278,3 +279,20 @@ def f(x: type[Exception]):
     # error: [possibly-unresolved-reference]
     reveal_type(e)  # revealed: None
 ```
+
+## Special-cased diagnostics for `NotImplemented`
+
+<!-- snapshot-diagnostics -->
+
+```py
+try:
+    # error: [invalid-raise]
+    # error: [invalid-raise]
+    raise NotImplemented from NotImplemented
+# error: [invalid-exception-caught]
+except NotImplemented:
+    pass
+# error: [invalid-exception-caught]
+except (TypeError, NotImplemented):
+    pass
+```

crates/ty_python_semantic/resources/mdtest/snapshots/basic.md_-_Exception_Handling_-_Invalid_exception_ha…_(d394c561bdd35078).snap

@@ -0,0 +1,146 @@
+---
+source: crates/ty_test/src/lib.rs
+expression: snapshot
+---
+---
+mdtest name: basic.md - Exception Handling - Invalid exception handlers
+mdtest path: crates/ty_python_semantic/resources/mdtest/exception/basic.md
+---
+
+# Python source files
+
+## mdtest_snippet.py
+
+```
+ 1 | try:
+ 2 |     pass
+ 3 | # error: [invalid-exception-caught]
+ 4 | except 3 as e:
+ 5 |     reveal_type(e)  # revealed: Unknown
+ 6 | 
+ 7 | try:
+ 8 |     pass
+ 9 | # error: [invalid-exception-caught]
+10 | except (ValueError, OSError, "foo", b"bar") as e:
+11 |     reveal_type(e)  # revealed: ValueError | OSError | Unknown
+12 | 
+13 | def foo(
+14 |     x: type[str],
+15 |     y: tuple[type[OSError], type[RuntimeError], int],
+16 |     z: tuple[type[str], ...],
+17 | ):
+18 |     try:
+19 |         help()
+20 |     # error: [invalid-exception-caught]
+21 |     except x as e:
+22 |         reveal_type(e)  # revealed: Unknown
+23 |     # error: [invalid-exception-caught]
+24 |     except y as f:
+25 |         reveal_type(f)  # revealed: OSError | RuntimeError | Unknown
+26 |     # error: [invalid-exception-caught]
+27 |     except z as g:
+28 |         reveal_type(g)  # revealed: Unknown
+29 | 
+30 | try:
+31 |     {}.get("foo")
+32 | # error: [invalid-exception-caught]
+33 | except int:
+34 |     pass
+```
+
+# Diagnostics
+
+```
+error[invalid-exception-caught]: Invalid object caught in an exception handler
+ --> src/mdtest_snippet.py:4:8
+  |
+2 |     pass
+3 | # error: [invalid-exception-caught]
+4 | except 3 as e:
+  |        ^ Object has type `Literal[3]`
+5 |     reveal_type(e)  # revealed: Unknown
+  |
+info: Can only catch a subclass of `BaseException` or tuple of `BaseException` subclasses
+info: rule `invalid-exception-caught` is enabled by default
+
+```
+
+```
+error[invalid-exception-caught]: Invalid tuple caught in an exception handler
+  --> src/mdtest_snippet.py:10:8
+   |
+ 8 |     pass
+ 9 | # error: [invalid-exception-caught]
+10 | except (ValueError, OSError, "foo", b"bar") as e:
+   |        ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^-----^^------^
+   |                              |      |
+   |                              |      Invalid element of type `Literal[b"bar"]`
+   |                              Invalid element of type `Literal["foo"]`
+11 |     reveal_type(e)  # revealed: ValueError | OSError | Unknown
+   |
+info: Can only catch a subclass of `BaseException` or tuple of `BaseException` subclasses
+info: rule `invalid-exception-caught` is enabled by default
+
+```
+
+```
+error[invalid-exception-caught]: Invalid object caught in an exception handler
+  --> src/mdtest_snippet.py:21:12
+   |
+19 |         help()
+20 |     # error: [invalid-exception-caught]
+21 |     except x as e:
+   |            ^ Object has type `type[str]`
+22 |         reveal_type(e)  # revealed: Unknown
+23 |     # error: [invalid-exception-caught]
+   |
+info: Can only catch a subclass of `BaseException` or tuple of `BaseException` subclasses
+info: rule `invalid-exception-caught` is enabled by default
+
+```
+
+```
+error[invalid-exception-caught]: Invalid tuple caught in an exception handler
+  --> src/mdtest_snippet.py:24:12
+   |
+22 |         reveal_type(e)  # revealed: Unknown
+23 |     # error: [invalid-exception-caught]
+24 |     except y as f:
+   |            ^ Object has type `tuple[type[OSError], type[RuntimeError], int]`
+25 |         reveal_type(f)  # revealed: OSError | RuntimeError | Unknown
+26 |     # error: [invalid-exception-caught]
+   |
+info: Can only catch a subclass of `BaseException` or tuple of `BaseException` subclasses
+info: rule `invalid-exception-caught` is enabled by default
+
+```
+
+```
+error[invalid-exception-caught]: Invalid tuple caught in an exception handler
+  --> src/mdtest_snippet.py:27:12
+   |
+25 |         reveal_type(f)  # revealed: OSError | RuntimeError | Unknown
+26 |     # error: [invalid-exception-caught]
+27 |     except z as g:
+   |            ^ Object has type `tuple[type[str], ...]`
+28 |         reveal_type(g)  # revealed: Unknown
+   |
+info: Can only catch a subclass of `BaseException` or tuple of `BaseException` subclasses
+info: rule `invalid-exception-caught` is enabled by default
+
+```
+
+```
+error[invalid-exception-caught]: Invalid object caught in an exception handler
+  --> src/mdtest_snippet.py:33:8
+   |
+31 |     {}.get("foo")
+32 | # error: [invalid-exception-caught]
+33 | except int:
+   |        ^^^ Object has type `<class 'int'>`
+34 |     pass
+   |
+info: Can only catch a subclass of `BaseException` or tuple of `BaseException` subclasses
+info: rule `invalid-exception-caught` is enabled by default
+
+```

crates/ty_python_semantic/resources/mdtest/snapshots/basic.md_-_Exception_Handling_-_Special-cased_diagno…_(a97274530a7f61c1).snap

@@ -0,0 +1,93 @@
+---
+source: crates/ty_test/src/lib.rs
+expression: snapshot
+---
+---
+mdtest name: basic.md - Exception Handling - Special-cased diagnostics for `NotImplemented`
+mdtest path: crates/ty_python_semantic/resources/mdtest/exception/basic.md
+---
+
+# Python source files
+
+## mdtest_snippet.py
+
+```
+ 1 | try:
+ 2 |     # error: [invalid-raise]
+ 3 |     # error: [invalid-raise]
+ 4 |     raise NotImplemented from NotImplemented
+ 5 | # error: [invalid-exception-caught]
+ 6 | except NotImplemented:
+ 7 |     pass
+ 8 | # error: [invalid-exception-caught]
+ 9 | except (TypeError, NotImplemented):
+10 |     pass
+```
+
+# Diagnostics
+
+```
+error[invalid-raise]: Cannot raise `NotImplemented`
+ --> src/mdtest_snippet.py:4:11
+  |
+2 |     # error: [invalid-raise]
+3 |     # error: [invalid-raise]
+4 |     raise NotImplemented from NotImplemented
+  |           ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ Did you mean `NotImplementedError`?
+5 | # error: [invalid-exception-caught]
+6 | except NotImplemented:
+  |
+info: Can only raise an instance or subclass of `BaseException`
+info: rule `invalid-raise` is enabled by default
+
+```
+
+```
+error[invalid-raise]: Cannot use `NotImplemented` as an exception cause
+ --> src/mdtest_snippet.py:4:31
+  |
+2 |     # error: [invalid-raise]
+3 |     # error: [invalid-raise]
+4 |     raise NotImplemented from NotImplemented
+  |                               ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ Did you mean `NotImplementedError`?
+5 | # error: [invalid-exception-caught]
+6 | except NotImplemented:
+  |
+info: An exception cause must be an instance of `BaseException`, subclass of `BaseException`, or `None`
+info: rule `invalid-raise` is enabled by default
+
+```
+
+```
+error[invalid-exception-caught]: Cannot catch `NotImplemented` in an exception handler
+ --> src/mdtest_snippet.py:6:8
+  |
+4 |     raise NotImplemented from NotImplemented
+5 | # error: [invalid-exception-caught]
+6 | except NotImplemented:
+  |        ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ Did you mean `NotImplementedError`?
+7 |     pass
+8 | # error: [invalid-exception-caught]
+  |
+info: Can only catch a subclass of `BaseException` or tuple of `BaseException` subclasses
+info: rule `invalid-exception-caught` is enabled by default
+
+```
+
+```
+error[invalid-exception-caught]: Invalid tuple caught in an exception handler
+  --> src/mdtest_snippet.py:9:8
+   |
+ 7 |     pass
+ 8 | # error: [invalid-exception-caught]
+ 9 | except (TypeError, NotImplemented):
+   |        ^^^^^^^^^^^^--------------^
+   |                    |
+   |                    Invalid element of type `NotImplementedType`
+   |                    Did you mean `NotImplementedError`?
+10 |     pass
+   |
+info: Can only catch a subclass of `BaseException` or tuple of `BaseException` subclasses
+info: rule `invalid-exception-caught` is enabled by default
+
+```

crates/ty_python_semantic/src/types/diagnostic.rs

@@ -2380,36 +2380,108 @@ pub(super) fn report_possibly_missing_attribute(
     };
 }
 
+pub(super) fn report_invalid_exception_tuple_caught<'db, 'ast>(
+    context: &InferContext<'db, 'ast>,
+    node: &'ast ast::ExprTuple,
+    invalid_tuple_nodes: impl IntoIterator<Item = (&'ast ast::Expr, Type<'db>)>,
+) {
+    let Some(builder) = context.report_lint(&INVALID_EXCEPTION_CAUGHT, node) else {
+        return;
+    };
+
+    let mut diagnostic = builder.into_diagnostic("Invalid tuple caught in an exception handler");
+
+    for (sub_node, ty) in invalid_tuple_nodes {
+        let span = context.span(sub_node);
+        diagnostic.annotate(Annotation::secondary(span.clone()).message(format_args!(
+            "Invalid element of type `{}`",
+            ty.display(context.db())
+        )));
+        if ty.is_notimplemented(context.db()) {
+            diagnostic.annotate(
+                Annotation::secondary(span).message("Did you mean `NotImplementedError`?"),
+            );
+        }
+    }
+
+    diagnostic.info(
+        "Can only catch a subclass of `BaseException` or tuple of `BaseException` subclasses",
+    );
+}
+
 pub(super) fn report_invalid_exception_caught(context: &InferContext, node: &ast::Expr, ty: Type) {
     let Some(builder) = context.report_lint(&INVALID_EXCEPTION_CAUGHT, node) else {
         return;
     };
-    builder.into_diagnostic(format_args!(
-        "Cannot catch object of type `{}` in an exception handler \
-            (must be a `BaseException` subclass or a tuple of `BaseException` subclasses)",
-        ty.display(context.db())
-    ));
+
+    let mut diagnostic = if ty.is_notimplemented(context.db()) {
+        let mut diag =
+            builder.into_diagnostic("Cannot catch `NotImplemented` in an exception handler");
+        diag.set_primary_message("Did you mean `NotImplementedError`?");
+        diag
+    } else {
+        let mut diag = builder.into_diagnostic(format_args!(
+            "Invalid {thing} caught in an exception handler",
+            thing = if ty.tuple_instance_spec(context.db()).is_some() {
+                "tuple"
+            } else {
+                "object"
+            },
+        ));
+        diag.set_primary_message(format_args!(
+            "Object has type `{}`",
+            ty.display(context.db())
+        ));
+        diag
+    };
+
+    diagnostic.info(
+        "Can only catch a subclass of `BaseException` or tuple of `BaseException` subclasses",
+    );
 }
 
-pub(crate) fn report_invalid_exception_raised(context: &InferContext, node: &ast::Expr, ty: Type) {
-    let Some(builder) = context.report_lint(&INVALID_RAISE, node) else {
+pub(crate) fn report_invalid_exception_raised(
+    context: &InferContext,
+    raised_node: &ast::Expr,
+    raise_type: Type,
+) {
+    let Some(builder) = context.report_lint(&INVALID_RAISE, raised_node) else {
         return;
     };
-    builder.into_diagnostic(format_args!(
-        "Cannot raise object of type `{}` (must be a `BaseException` subclass or instance)",
-        ty.display(context.db())
-    ));
+    if raise_type.is_notimplemented(context.db()) {
+        let mut diagnostic =
+            builder.into_diagnostic(format_args!("Cannot raise `NotImplemented`",));
+        diagnostic.set_primary_message("Did you mean `NotImplementedError`?");
+        diagnostic.info("Can only raise an instance or subclass of `BaseException`");
+    } else {
+        let mut diagnostic = builder.into_diagnostic(format_args!(
+            "Cannot raise object of type `{}`",
+            raise_type.display(context.db())
+        ));
+        diagnostic.set_primary_message("Not an instance or subclass of `BaseException`");
+    }
 }
 
 pub(crate) fn report_invalid_exception_cause(context: &InferContext, node: &ast::Expr, ty: Type) {
     let Some(builder) = context.report_lint(&INVALID_RAISE, node) else {
         return;
     };
-    builder.into_diagnostic(format_args!(
-        "Cannot use object of type `{}` as exception cause \
-         (must be a `BaseException` subclass or instance or `None`)",
-        ty.display(context.db())
-    ));
+    let mut diagnostic = if ty.is_notimplemented(context.db()) {
+        let mut diag = builder.into_diagnostic(format_args!(
+            "Cannot use `NotImplemented` as an exception cause",
+        ));
+        diag.set_primary_message("Did you mean `NotImplementedError`?");
+        diag
+    } else {
+        builder.into_diagnostic(format_args!(
+            "Cannot use object of type `{}` as an exception cause",
+            ty.display(context.db())
+        ))
+    };
+    diagnostic.info(
+        "An exception cause must be an instance of `BaseException`, \
+        subclass of `BaseException`, or `None`",
+    );
 }
 
 pub(crate) fn report_instance_layout_conflict(

crates/ty_python_semantic/src/types/infer/builder.rs

@@ -72,9 +72,10 @@ use crate::types::diagnostic::{
     report_instance_layout_conflict, report_invalid_arguments_to_annotated,
     report_invalid_assignment, report_invalid_attribute_assignment,
     report_invalid_exception_caught, report_invalid_exception_cause,
-    report_invalid_exception_raised, report_invalid_generator_function_return_type,
-    report_invalid_key_on_typed_dict, report_invalid_or_unsupported_base,
-    report_invalid_return_type, report_invalid_type_checking_constant,
+    report_invalid_exception_raised, report_invalid_exception_tuple_caught,
+    report_invalid_generator_function_return_type, report_invalid_key_on_typed_dict,
+    report_invalid_or_unsupported_base, report_invalid_return_type,
+    report_invalid_type_checking_constant,
     report_namedtuple_field_without_default_after_field_with_default, report_non_subscriptable,
     report_possibly_missing_attribute, report_possibly_unresolved_reference,
     report_rebound_typevar, report_slice_step_size_zero,
@@ -3025,7 +3026,9 @@ impl<'db, 'ast> TypeInferenceBuilder<'db, 'ast> {
         // it will actually be the type of the generic parameters to `BaseExceptionGroup` or `ExceptionGroup`.
         let symbol_ty = if let Some(tuple_spec) = node_ty.tuple_instance_spec(self.db()) {
             let mut builder = UnionBuilder::new(self.db());
-            for element in tuple_spec.all_elements().copied() {
+            let mut invalid_elements = vec![];
+
+            for (index, element) in tuple_spec.all_elements().enumerate() {
                 builder = builder.add(
                     if element.is_assignable_to(self.db(), type_base_exception) {
                         element.to_instance(self.db()).expect(
@@ -3033,13 +3036,29 @@ impl<'db, 'ast> TypeInferenceBuilder<'db, 'ast> {
                                 if called on a type assignable to `type[BaseException]`",
                         )
                     } else {
-                        if let Some(node) = node {
-                            report_invalid_exception_caught(&self.context, node, element);
-                        }
+                        invalid_elements.push((index, element));
                         Type::unknown()
                     },
                 );
             }
+
+            if !invalid_elements.is_empty()
+                && let Some(node) = node
+            {
+                if let ast::Expr::Tuple(tuple) = node
+                    && !tuple.iter().any(ast::Expr::is_starred_expr)
+                    && Some(tuple.len()) == tuple_spec.len().into_fixed_length()
+                {
+                    let invalid_elements = invalid_elements
+                        .iter()
+                        .map(|(index, ty)| (&tuple.elts[*index], **ty));
+
+                    report_invalid_exception_tuple_caught(&self.context, tuple, invalid_elements);
+                } else {
+                    report_invalid_exception_caught(&self.context, node, node_ty);
+                }
+            }
+
             builder.build()
         } else if node_ty.is_assignable_to(self.db(), type_base_exception) {
             node_ty.to_instance(self.db()).expect(